Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis
(Select topics and
bibliographies)
Updated: 14 July 2000
This website is simply a bibliographic list of select articles dealing with Cryptosporidium. Because several hundred papers are published each year on various aspects of Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis, it is impossible to list all papers. I simply list some of those that fall out of the truly huge pile on my desk and appear to be useful. There are plenty of other papers that are not listed and I just plain don't have the time, space, or motivation to add them. I suppose if I didn't have to teach, sit on boring committees, write reports, answer a dozen or more e-mails per day, compose grants, and review 50 manuscripts per year then I'd have the time to make the list more complete plus publish a few more papers of my own. I do manage to update the bibliography 2-3 times each year, however, and suggestions on non-bizzare additional topics are welcome. If you are a researcher publishing in the field of cryptosporidiosis, please put me on your mailing list and I will "try" to list your pertinent references as they appear. PLEASE NOTE that I am not a photocopying service. Oddly enough, I actually receive 1-2 requests each month asking that I photocopy all of my thousands of papers on cryptosporidiosis (or other coccidia) and mail them gratis. Get real.
The following is (predominately) a list of in-file links. Since the bibliography is getting so extensive, I've removed all extraneous icons and Javascript to enhance file loading, and have split a couple of the topics out into separate files. Once the complete file is loaded, simply tag on any subject and you should proceed to those citations listed under that topic.
Atwill, E.R. et al. 1997. Prevalence of and associated risk factors for shedding Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts within feral pig populations in California. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 63: 3946-3949.
Atwill, E.R. et al. 1998. Evaluation of periparturient dairy cows and contact surfaces as a reservoir of Cryptosporidium parvum for calfhood infection. Am. J. Vet. Res. 59: 1116-1121.
Kemp, J.S. et al. 1995. On farm detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in cattle, calves and environmental samples. In, Protozoan Parasites and Water. Proceedings of a Conference, University of New York, 1994. Bets, W.B. et al., eds. Royal Soc. Chem., London. pp. 154-157.
Lorenzo Lorenzo, M.J. et al. 1993. Detection of oocysts and IgG antibodies to Cryptosporidium parvum in asymptomatic adult cattle. Vet. Parasitol. 47: 9-15.
Mendes Maia, A.A. et al. 1995. Oocysts of Cryptospordium spp in the feces of bovines, in Montes Claros, MG, Brazil. Arq. Bras. Med. Vet. Zootec. 47: 717-719.
Olson, M.E. et al. 1997. Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Canadian farm animals. Vet. Parasitol. 68: 375-381.
Quilez, J. et al. 1996. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium and Giardia infections in cattle in Aragon (northeastern Spain). Vet. Parasitol. 66: 139-146.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1991. Isolation and identification of Cryptosporidium from various animals in Korea. I. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium within various animals. Korean J. Parasitol. 29: 139-148.
Scott, C.A. et al. 1994. Excretion of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts by a herd of beef suckler cows. Vet. Record 134: 172.
Scott, C.A. et al. 1995. An epidemiologic study of Cryptosporidium parvum in two herds of adult beef cattle. Vet. Parasitol. 57: 277-288.
Tacal, J.V. et al. 1987. Cryptosporidium in market pigs in southern California, USA. Vet. Record 120: 615-617.
Villacorta, I. et al. 1991. Cryptosporidium parvum in cattle, sheep and pigs in Galicia (N.W. Spain). Vet. Parasitol. 38: 249-252.
Xiao, L. et al. 1993. Diagnosis of Cryptosporidium on a sheep farm with neonatal diarrhea by immunofluorescence assays. Vet. Parasitol. 47: 17-23.
(miscellaneous reports and reviews)
Caputo, C. et al. 1999. Determinants of antibodies to Cryptosporidium infection among gay and bisexual men with HIV infection. Epidemiol. Inf. 122: 291-297.
Chacin-Bonilla, L. et al. 1992. Cryptosporidiosis among patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Zulia state, Venezuela. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 47: 582-586.
Chui, D.W. and Owen, R.L. 1993. AIDS and the gut. J. Gastroent. Hepatol. 9: 291-303.
Clark, D.P. and Sears, C.L. 1996. The pathogenesis of cryptosporidiosis. Parasitol. Today 12: 221-225.
Clayton, F. et al. 1994. Variation in the enteric distribution of cryptosporidia in acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 102: 420-425.
Cozon, G. et al. 1994. Secretory IgA antibodies to Cryptosporidium parvum in AIDS patients with chronic cryptosporidiosis. J. Inf. Dis. 169: 696-699.
Current, W.L. 1989. Cryptosporidium spp. In, Parasitic infections in the compromised host, Walzer, P.D. and Genta, R.M., eds. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York. pp. 281-341.
Current, W.L. and Owen, R.L. 1989. Cryptosporidiosis and microsporidiosis. In, Enteric infection: Mechanisms, manifestations and Management, Farthing M.J.G. and Keusch, G.T., eds. Chapman and Hall, London. pp. 223-249.
Esfandiari, A. et al. 1995. Prevalence of enteric parasitic infection among HIV-infected attendees of an inner city AIDS clinic. Cell. Mol. Biol. 41(special supplement No.1): s19-s26.
Glaser, C.A. et al. 1998. Association between Cryptosporidium infection and animal exposure in HIV-infected individuals. J. Aquired Imm. Def. Syndr. Hum. Retrovirol. 17: 79-82.
Godwin, T.A. 1991. Cryptosporidiosis in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Human Pathol. 22: 1215-1224.
Gomez Morales, M.A. et al. 1995. Opportunistic and non-opportunistic parasites in HIV-positive and negative patients with diarrhoea in Tanzania. Trop. Med. Parasitol. 46: 109-114.
Goodgame, R.W. et al. 1993. Intensity of infection in AIDS-associated cryptosporidosis. J. Inf. Dis. 167: 704-709.
Guarda, L. A. et al. 1983. Human cryptosporidiosis in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. Arch. Pathol. Lab. Med. 107: 562-566.
Guarino, A. et al. 1997. Enteric cryptosporidiosis in pediatric HIV infection. J. Ped. Gastroent. Nutr. 25: 182-187.
Hoepelman, A.I.M. 1996. Current therapeutic approaches to cryptosporidiosis in immunocompromised patients. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 37: 871-880.
Jones, J.L. et al. 1994. Surveillance of AIDS-defining conditions in the United States. AIDS 8: 1493-1493.
Lopez-Velez, R. et al. 1995. Intestinal and extraintestinal cryptosporidiosis in AIDS patients. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Inf. Dis. 14: 677-681.
Ma, P. et al. 1984. Respiratory cryptosporidiosis in the acquired immune deficiency syndrome. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 252: 1298-1301.
Mayer, H.B. and Wanke, C.A. 1994. Diagnostic strategies in HIV-infected patients with diarrhea. AIDS 8: 1639-1648.
Modigliani, R. et al. 1985. Diarrhoea and malabsorption in acquired immune deficiency syndrome: a study of four cases with special emphasis on opportunistic protozoan infestations. Gut 26: 179-187.
Pedersen, C. et al. 1996. Epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis among European AIDS patients. Genitourin. Med. 72: 128-131.
Peterson, C. 1992. Cryptosporidiosis in patients infected with the human immunodeficiency virus. Clin. Inf. Dis. 15: 903-909.
Rene, E. et al. 1989. Intestinal infections in patients with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome: a prospective study in 132 patients. Dig. Dis. Sci. 34: 773-780.
Sorvillo, F.J. et al. 1994. Municipal drinking water and cryptosporidiosis among persons with AIDS in Los Angeles county. Epidemiol. Inf. 113: 313-320.
Sorvillo, F.J. et al. 1994. Epidemiology of cryptosporidiosis among persons with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome in Los Angeles county. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 51: 326-331.
Sun, T. 1994. Current topics in protozoal diseases. Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 102: 16-29.
Ungar, B.L.P. 1990. Cryptosporidiosis in humans (Homo sapiens). In, Cryptosporidiosis of Man and Animals, Dubey, J.P., Speer, C.A., and Fayer, R., eds. CRC Press, Boca Raton. pp. 59-82.
Carr, A.D. et al. 1998. Treatment of HIV-1 associated microsporidiosis and cryptosporidiosis with combination antiretroviral therapy. Lancet 351 (9098): 256-261.
Chandrasekar, P.H. 1987. Cure of chronic cryptosporidiosis during treatment with azidothymidine in a patient with the aquired immune deficiency syndrome. Am. J. Med. 83: 187.
Contamin, B. et al. 1997. Infection a Cryptosporidium: interet d'un inhibiteur de protease. La Presse Medicale 26: 416.
Foudraine, N.A. et al. 1998. Improvement of chronic diarrhea in patients with advanced HIV-1 infection during potent antiretroviral therapy. AIDS 12: 35-41.
Greenberg, R.E. et al. 1989. Resolution of intestinal cryptosporidiosis after treatment of AIDS with AZT. Gastroenterology 97: 1327-1330.
Grube, H. et al. 1997. Resolution of AIDS associated cryptosporidiosis after treatment with indinavir. Am. J. Gastroent. 92: 726.
Maggi, P. et al. 2000. Effect of antiretroviral therapy on cryptosporidiosis and microsporidiosis in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type I. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Inf. Dis. 19: 213-217.
Woods, K.M. and S.J. Upton. 1998. Efficacy of select antivirals against Cryptosporidium parvum in vitro. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 168: 59-63.
NOTE: Avian hosts harbor multiple species of Cryptosporidium. In chickens, C. baileyi infects the bursa, cloaca, and respiratory system and can lead to severe clinical illness and death. Cryptosporidium meleagridis infects both the small intestine and respiratory system of turkeys and can also be highly pathogenic. Unnamed species of Cryptosporidium occur in quail and ostriches. In quail, the parasite infects the small intestine and mortality in hatchlings can reach 90-100% The species in ostriches infects the cloaca and can cause cloacal prolapse and death in chicks.
Abbassi, H. et al. 1999. Renal cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium baileyi) in specific-pathogen-free chickens experimentally coinfected with Marek's disease virus. Avian Dis. 43: 738-744.
Bekesi, L. et al. 1997. Effect of F-2 and T-2 fusariotxins on experimental Cryptosporidium baileyi infection in chickens. Int. J. Parasitol. 27: 1531-1536.
Belton, D.J. and Powell, I.B. 1987. Cryptosporidiosis in lovebirds (Agapornis sp.). N. Z. Vet. J. 35: 15.
Bezuidenhout, A.J. et al. 1993. Prolapse of the phallus and cloaca in the ostrich (Struthio camelus). Tydskr. S. Afr. Vet. Ver. 64: 156-158.
Blagburn, B.L. et al. 1991. Pathobiology of cryptosporidiosis (C. baileyi) in broiler chickens. J. Protozool. 38: 25s-28s.
Cheadle, M.A. et al. 1999. The ultrastructure of gametogenesis of Cryptosporidium baileyi (Eimeriorina: Cryptosporidiidae) in the respiratory tract of broiler chickens (Gallus domesticus). J. Parasitol. 85: 609-615.
Current, W.L. et al. 1986. The life cycle of Cryptosporidium baileyi n. sp. (Apicomplexa, Cryptosporidiidae) infecting chickens. J. Protozool. 33: 289-296.
Dhillon, A.S. et al. 1981. Respiratory cryptosporidiosis in broiler chickens. Av. Dis. 25: 747- 751.
Doster, A.R. et al. 1979. Cryptosporidia in the cloacal coprodeum of red-lored parrots (Amazona autumnalis). Av. Dis. 23: 654-661.
Fujino, T. 1996. Infectivity of Cryptospordiium sp. isolated from chickens in Japan to turkeys, bobwhite quails and several kinds of experimental animals. Jpn. J. Parasitol. 45: 295-298.
Fujino, T. et al. 1996. Infectivity and immunogenicity to Japanese quails (Coturnix coturnix japonica) of Cryptosporidium sp. isolated from chickens in Japan. Japanese J. Parasitol. 45: 139-143.
Gajadhar, A.A. 1993. Cryptosporidium species in imported ostriches and consideration of possible implications for birds in Canada. Can. Vet. J. 34: 115-116.
Gajadjar, A.A. 1994. Host specificity studies and oocyst description of a Cryptosporidium sp. isolated from ostriches. Parasitol. Res. 80: 316-319.
Gardiner, C.H. and Imes, G.D. 1984. Cryptosporidium sp. in the kidneys of a black-throated finch. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 185: 1401-1402.
Glisson, J.R. et al. 1984. Sinusitis in turkeys associated with respiratory cryptosporidiosis. Av. Dis. 28: 783-790.
Goodwin, M.A. 1989. Cryptosporidiosis in birds-a review. Av. Pathol. 18: 365-384.
Goodwin, M.A. and Brown, J. 1989. Intestinal cryptosporidiosis in chickens. Av. Dis. 33: 770-777.
Goodwin, M.A. and Krabill, V.A. 1989. Diarrhea associated with small-intestinal cryptosporidiosis in a budgerigar and in a cockatiel. Av. Dis. 33: 829-833.
Goodwin, M.A. et al. 1988. Diarrhea associated with intestinal cryptosporidiosis in turkeys. Av. Dis. 32: 63-67.
Goodwin, M.A. et al. 1988. Respiratory cryptosporidiosis in chickens. Poult. Sci. 67: 1684- 1693.
Goodwin, M.A. et al. 1996. Respiratory coccidiosis (Cryptosporidium baileyi) among Northern Georgia broilers in one company. Av. Dis. 40: 572-575.
Gorham, S.L. et al. 1987. Cryptosporidia in the bursa of Fabricius-a correlation with mortality rates in broiler chickens. Av. Pathol. 16: 205-211.
Hoerr, F.J. et al. 1978. Respiratory cryptosporidiosis in turkeys. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 173: 1591-1593.
Hoerr, F.J. et al. 1986. Fatal cryptosporidiosis in quail. Av. Dis. 30: 421-425.
Hornok, S. et al. 1998. Interaction of chicken anaemia virus and Cryptosporidium baileyi in experimentally infected chickens. Vet. Parasitol. 76: 43-55.
Hornok, S. et al. 1999. Immunogenicity of three oocyst extracts of Cryptosporidium baileyi in experimentally infected chickens. Parasitol. Res. 85: 71-77.
Itakura, C. et al. 1984. Cryptosporidial infection in chickens. Av. Pathol. 13: 487-499.
Kambarage, D.M. et al. 1997. Prevalence of Eimeria and cryptosporidia oocysts in chickens in Tanzania. Zimbabwe Vet. J. 28: 60-63.
Latimer, K.S. et al. 1992. Cryptosporidiosis in four cockatoos with psittacine beak and feather disease. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 200: 707-710.
Lindsay, D.S. and Blagburn, B.L. 1990. Cryptosporidiosis in birds. In, Cryptosporidiosis of Man and Animals, Dubey, J.P., Speer, C.A., and Fayer, R., eds. CRC Press, Boca Raton. pp. 133-148.
Lindsay, D.S. et al. 1986. Experimental Cryptosporidium infections in chickens: oocyst structure and tissue specificity. Am. J. Vet. Res. 47: 876-879.
Lindsay, D.S. et al. 1986. Host specificity of Cryptosporidium sp. isolated from chickens. J. Parasitol. 72: 565-568.
Lindsay, D.S. et al. 1987. Experimentally induced infections in turkeys with Cryptosporidium baileyi isolated from chickens. Am. J. Vet. Res. 48: 104-108.
Lindsay, D.S. et al. 1988. Effect of broiler age on susceptibility to experimentally induced Cryptosporidium baileyi infection. Am. J. Vet. Res. 49: 1412-1414.
Lindsay, D.S. et al. 1989. Morphometric comparison of the oocysts of Cryptosporidium meleagridis and Cryptosporidium baileyi from birds. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 56: 91-92.
Lindsay, D.S. et al. 1989. Experimental infections in domestic ducks with Cryptosporidium baileyi isolated from chickens. Av. Dis. 33: 69-73.
Lindsay, D.S. et al. 1990. Small intestinal cryptosporidiosis in cockatiels associated with Cryptosporidium bailey-like oocysts. Av. Dis. 34: 791-793.
Lindsay, D.S. et al. 1991. Cryptosporidiosis in Zoo and pet birds. J. Protozool. 38: 180s-181s.
Mason, R.W. 1986. Conjunctival cryptosporidiosis in a duck. Av. Dis. 30: 598-600.
Mason, R.W. and Hartley, W.J. 1980. Respiratory cryptosporidiosis in a peacock chick. Av. Dis. 24: 771-776.
Morgan, U.M. et al. 2000. Cryptosporidium meleagridis in an Indian ring-necked parrot. Aust. Vet. J. 78: 182-183.
Nakai, Y. et al. 1994. Cryptosporidia and cryptosporidiosis - chicken Cryptosoridium species - . J. Animal Protozooses 6: 1-15.
Nakamura, K. and Abe, F. 1988. Respiratory (especially pulmonary) and urinary infections of Cryptosporidium in layer chickens. Av. Pathol. 17: 703-711.
O'Donoghue, P.J. et al. 1987. Cryptosporidium infections in birds and mammals and attempted cross-transmission studies. Vet. Parasitol. 26: 1-11.
Ozkul, I.A. and Aydin, Y. 1994. Small-intestinal cryptosporidiosis in a young pidgeon. Av. Pathol. 223: 369-372.
Pavlasek, I. and Kozakiewicz, B. 1989. Occurrence and localization of Cryptosporidium sp. in spontaneously infected pheasants (Phasianus colchicus L.). Folia Parasitol. 36: 287-288.
Pavlasek, I. and Pecka, Z. 1989. Natural cryptosporidiosis in domestic geese, Anser anser L., in Czechoslovakia. Folia Parasitol. 36: 126.
Randall, C.J. 1986. Renal and nasal cryptosporidiosis in a junglefowl (Gallus sommeratii). Vet. Rec. 119: 130-131.
Randall, C.J. 1986. Conjunctivitis in pheasants associated with cryptosporidial infection. Vet. Rec. 118: 211-212.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1995. Oocyst production and immunogenicity of Cryptosporidium baileyi in chickens and mallards. Korean J. Parasitol. 33: 45-54.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1996. Chronologic change in serum IgG antibody response in chickens reinfected with Cryptosporidium baileyi. Korean J. Parasitol. 34: 255-258.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1997. Effects of Cryptosporidium baileyi infection on the bursa of Fabricius in chickens. Korean J. Parasitol. 35: 181-187.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1998. Effect of Cryptosporidium baileyi infection on antibody response to sRBC in chickens. Korean J. Parasitol. 36: 33-36.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1998. Immunosuppressive effect of Cryptosporidium baileyi infection on vaccination against Newcastle disease in chicks. Korean J. Parasitol. 36: 121-125.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1998. Immunosuppressive effect of Cryptosporidium baileyi infection on vaccination against avian infectious bronchitis in chicks. Korean J. Parasitol. 36: 203-206.
Richter, D. et al. 1994. Natural infections by Cryptosporidium sp. in farm-raised ducks and geese. Av. Pathol. 23: 277-286.
Sironi, G. et al. 1991. Cryptosporidiosis in game birds. Vet. Rec. 129: 337-338.
Slavin, D. 1955. Cryptosporidium meleagridis (sp. nov.). J. Comp. Pathol. 65: 262-266.
Smith, H.V. et al. 1993. Occurrence of oocysts of Cryptosporidium sp. in Larus spp. gulls. Epidemiol. Inf. 110: 135-143.
Snyder, D.B. et al. 1988. Serologic incidence of Cryptosporidium in Delmarva broiler flocks. Poult. Sci. 67: 730-735.
Sreter, T. et al. 1997. Attempts to immunize chickens against Cryptosporidium baileyi with C. parvum oocysts and Paracox vaccine. Folia Parasitologica 44: 77-80.
Tacconi, G. et al. 1997. A natural cryptosporidial infection in young commercial turkeys. La Selezione Veterinaria 8-9: 793-798.
Takano, H. et al. 1992. Developmental process of Cryptosporidium in the intestine and bursa of Fabricius of chickens. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 54: 289-292.
Tarwid, J.N. et al. 1985. Cryptosporidiosis in the respiratory tract of turkeys in Saskatchewan. Av. Dis. 29: 528-532.
Taylor, M.A. et al. 1994. Variations in oocyst output associated with Cryptosporidium baileyi infections in chickens. Vet. Parasitol. 53: 7-14.
Tham, V.L. et al. 1982. Cryptosporidiosis in quails. Av. Pathol. 11: 619-626.
Tumova, E. et al. 1999. Vliv experimentalni kryptosporidiove nakazy na uzitkovost brojlerovych kurat. Czech. J. Anim. Sci. 44: 69-72.
Varga, I. et al. 1995. Potentiation of ionophorous anticoccidials with duokvin: battery trials against Cryptosporidium baileyi in chickens. J. Parasitol. 81: 777-780. [also see same title in Magyr Allatorvosok Lapja, 1996, 51: 729-731].
Whittington, R.J. and Wilson, J.M. 1985. Cryptosporidiosis of the respiratory tract in a pheasant. Aust. Vet. J. 62: 284-285.
Wunderlin, E. et al. 1997. Comparative reproduction of Cryptosporidium baileyi in embryonated egss and in chickens. Parasitol. Res. 83: 712-715.
NOTE: Cattle host 2 Cryptosporidium spp. One species, C. parvum, primarily infects neonates and is the same species as that infecting humans. However, a larger species can also be found that colonizes the gastric glands of a small percentage (less than 10%) of adult bovids. Although this parasite does not appear to cause overt pathology, its presence is correlated with reduced milk output in dairy cattle. This larger species was commonly termed C. muris (or C. muris-like) in the literature as it is similar morphologically to the type species; some authors have even reported cross-transmission between cattle and rodents. However, this species is distinct from C. muris and is now termed C. andersoni (see Lindsay et al., 2000, J. Euk. Microbiol. 47: 91-95).
Anderson, B.C. 1981. Patterns of shedding of cryptosporidial oocysts in Idaho calves. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 178: 982-984.
Anderson, B.C. 1987. Abomasal cryptosporidiosis in cattle. Vet. Pathol. 24: 235-238.
Anderson, B.C. 1988. Gastric cryptosporidiosis of feeder cattle, beef cows, and dairy cows. Bovine Pract. 23(Nov.): 99-101
Anderson, B.C. 1991. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium muris-like oocysts among cattle populations of the United States: preliminary report. J. Protozool. 38: 14s-15s.
Angus, K.W. 1990. Cryptosporidiosis in runimants. In, Cryptosporidiosis of Man and Animals, Dubey, J.P., Speer, C.A., and Fayer, R., eds. CRC Press, Boca Raton. pp. 83-103.
Ares-Mazas, M.E. et al. 1999. Oocysts, IgG levels and immmunoblot patterns determined for Cryptosporidium parvum in bovine examined during a visit to a farm (northeastern Spain). Vet. Parasitol. 81: 185-193.
Atwill, E.R. 1996. Assessing the link between rangeland cattle and waterborne Cryptosporidium parvum infection in humans. Rangelands 18: 48-51.
Atwill, E.R. et al. 1999. Age, geographic, and temporal distribution of fecal shedding of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in cow-calf herds. Am. J. Vet. Res. 60: 420-425.
Atwill, E.R. et al. 1999. Association of herd composition, stocking rate, and duration of calving season with fecal shedding of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in beef herds. JAVMA 215: 1833-1838.
Bergeland, M.E. et al. 1979. Bovine cryptosporidiosis in the North Central United States. Proc. 22nd Ann. meeting, Am. Assoc. Lab. Diagnosticians, pp. 131-138.
de J. Pena, H.F. et al. 1997. Cryptosporidium muris in dairy cattle in Brazil. Vet. Parasitol. 73: 353-355.
Esteban, E. and Anderson, B.C. 1995. Cryptosporidium muris: prevalence, persistency, and detrimental effect on milk production in a drylot dairy. J. Dairy Sci. 78: 1068-1072.
Fayer, R. et al. 1985. Factors contributing to clinical illness in calves experimentally infected with a bovine isolate of Cryptosporidium. Proc. Helminthol. Soc. Wash. 52: 64-70.
Fayer, R. et al. 1989. efficacy of hyperimmune bovine colostrum for prophylaxis of cryptosporidiosis in neonatal calves. J. Parasitol. 75: 393-397.
Garber, L.P. et al. 1994. Potential risk factors for Cryptosporidium infection in dairy calves. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 205: 86-91.
Gibbons, C.L.et al. 1998. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. muris oocysts in spiked backwash water using three PCR-based protocols. Protist 149: 127-134.
de Graaf, D.C. et al. 1999. A review of the importance of cryptosporidiosis in farm animals. Int. J. Parasitol. 29: 1269-1287.
Harp, J.A. et al. 1990. Resistance of calves to Cryptosporidium parvum: effects of age and previous exposure. Inf. Immun. 58: 2237-2240.
Harp, J.A. et al. 1996. Field testing of prophylactic measures against Cryptosporidium parvum infection in calves in a California dairy herd. Am. J. Vet. Res. 57: 1586-1588.
Hoar, B.R. et al. 1999. Comparision of fecal samples collected per rectum and off the ground for estimation of environmental contamination attributable to beef cattle. Am. J. Vet. Res. 60: 1352-1356.
Kaminjolo, J.S. et al. 1993. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in livestock in Trinidad and Tobago. Vet. Parasitol. 45: 209-213.
Kaneta, Y. and Nakai, Y. 1998. Survey of Cryptosporidium oocysts from adult cattle in a slaughter house. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 60: 585-588.
Koudela, B. et al. 1998. Infectivity of Cryptosporidium muris isolated from cattle. Vet. Parasitol. 76: 181-188.
Lengerich, E.J. et al. 1993. Increased exposure to cryptosporidia among dairy farmers in Wisconsin. J. Inf. Dis. 167: 1252-1255.
Lentze, T. et al. 1999. Prevalence and importance of endoparasites in calves raised in Swiss cow-calf farms. Dtsch. Tierarztl. Wschr. 106: 275-281.
Lindsay, D.S. et al. 2000. Cryptosporidium andersoni n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) from cattle, Bos taurus. J. Euk. Microbiol. 47: 91-95.
Lorenzo, M.J. et al. 1995. Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst antigens recognized by sera from infected asymptomatic adult cattle. Vet. Parasitol. 60: 17-25.
Miron, D. et al. 1991. Calves as a source of an outbreak of cryptosporidiosis among young children in an agricultural closed community. Pediatr. Inf. Dis. J. 10: 438-441.
Mohammed, H.O. et al. 1999. Risk factors associated with Cryptosporidium parvum infection in dairy cattle in southeastern New York state. Vet. Parasitol. 83: 1-13.
Moon, H.W. and Bemrick, W.J. 1981. Fecal transmission of calf Cryptosporidium between calves and pigs. Vet. Pathol. 18: 248-255.
Moon, H.W. et al. 1978. Pathogenic relationships of rotavirus, Escherichia coli, and other agents in mixed infections in calves. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 173: 577-583.
Myers, L.L. et al. 1984. Prevalence of enteric pathogens in the feces of healthy beef calves. Am. J. Vet. Res. 45: 1544-1548.
Naciri, M. et al. 1999. Role of Cryptosporidium parvum as a pathogen in neonatal diarrhoea complex in suckling and dairy calves in France. Vet. Parasitol. 85: 245-257.
Nussbaum, D.J. et al. 1999. Evaluation of quantitative latex agglutination for detection of Cryptosporidium parvum, E. coli K99, and rotavirus in calf feces. J. Vet. Diag. Invest. 11: 314-318.
Olson, M.E. et al. 1997. Giardia and Cryptosporidium in Canadian farm animals. Vet. Parasitol. 68: 375-381.
Ongerth, J.E. and Stibbs, H.H. 1989. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection in dairy calves in western Washington. Am. J. Vet. Res. 50: 1069-1070.
Powell, H.S. et al. 1976. Bovine cryptosporidiosis. Vet. Med./Sm. Animal Clin. 71: 205-207.
Quilez, J. et al. 1996. Comparison of oocyst shedding and the serum immune response to Cryptosporidium parvum in cattle and pigs. Parasitol. Res. 82: 529-534.
Ruest, N. et al. 1997. Morphological changes in the jejunum of calves naturally infected with Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. Vet. Parasitol. 69: 177-186.
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NOTE: Studies evaluating the therapeutic effect of milk products on cryptosporidiosis have met with mixed results. In the past, we have performed some in depth in vivo and in vitro studies on various milk products; plus we have read the literature carefully. Our conclusion is that most studies demonstrating lack of efficacy have either failed to report the exact antibody titers of their milk products, or they are dealing with fairly low anti-cryptosporidial titers (i.e. <1:20,000 lets say). Those studies demonstrating good efficacy are working in the antibody range of >1:100,000. However, we have also found that it is not the titer as much as specificity of the antibody; we've seen some lots of colostrum that have been frozen and thawed repeatedly and still retain high antibody titers, but efficacy has diminished. Our conclusion is that only certain antibodies recognizing specific epitopes of the parasite actually have a negative impact on parasite development. We have seen plenty of bovine milk products that lower levels of infection significantly, but none that eliminate the parasite entirely on a consistent basis.
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NOTE: Although Cryptosporidium occurs in both cats and dogs, the majority of papers describe the organism from cats. As far as known, only C. parvum has thus far been recorded naturally from dogs. However, there is growing evidence that at least 3 species may infect cats; two of which appear morphologically identical. Experimentally, C. muris can be transmitted to cats and one paper suggests that a cat may have been passing C. muris naturally; however, since oocysts of this species are relatively large, it is easy to distinguish. Cats can also be readily infected with C. parvum, which is not surprising, and spontaneous/natural infections have been recorded. The problem lies with isolates morphologically similar to C. parvum which can sometimes be found to chronically infect cats. These isolates are not readily transmitted to other mammals, and growing evidence suggests that these may represent a species unique to felids.
Arai, H. et al. 1990. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium infection among domestic cats in the Tokyo metropolitan district, Japan. Jpn. J. Med. Sci. Biol. 43: 7-14.
Asahi, H. et al. 1991. Biological nature of Cryptosporidium sp. isolated from a cat. Parasitol. Res. 77: 237-240.
Bennett, M. et al. 1985. Cryptosporidiosis in the domestric cat. Vet. Rec. 116: 73-74.
Egger, M. et al. 1990. Intestinal cryptosporidiosis acquired froma cat. Infection 18: 177-178.
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Iseki, M. 1979. Cryptosporidium felis sp. n. (Protozoa: Eimeriorina) from the domestic cat. Jpn. J. Parasitol. 28: 285-307.
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NOTE: Two different Cryptosporidium spp. infecting the gastric mucosa of mammals have traditionally been termed "Cryptosporidium muris." One species, the true C. muris, primarily infects rodents. However, experimental transmission studies have clearly shown it to be capable of infecting a wide range of hosts. The other species, termed either C. muris or C. muris-like, is found in cattle and tends not to infect non-bovine hosts. This latter species is now termed C. andersoni (see Lindsay et al., 2000, J. Euk. Microbiol. 47: 91-95) and the genetic distinction between the two species has been defined (Morgan et al., 2000, Parasitology 120: 457-464).
Anderson, B.C. 1991. Experimental infection of mice with Cryptosporidium muris isolated from a camel. J. Protozool. 38: 16s-17s.
Aydin, Y. 1991. Laboratuvar hayvanlarinda deneysel cryptosporidiosis: patolojik bulgular ve cross-transmission calismalari. Fac. Vet. Med. Univ. Ankara 38: 465-482.
Aydin, Y. and Ozkul, I.A. 1996. Infectivity of Cryptosporidium muris directly isolated from the murine stomach for various laboratory animals. Vet. Parasitol. 66: 257-262.
Bull, S.A. et al. 1998. A survey of Cryptosporidium species in Skomer bank voles (Cleithrionomys glareolus skomerensis). J. Zool. Lond. 244: 119-122.
Chalmers, R.M. et al. 1994. Cryptosporidium muris in wild house mice (Mus musculus): first report in the UK. Europ. J. Protistol. 30: 151-155.
Chalmers, R.M. et al. 1997. The prevalence of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. muris in Mus domesticus, Apodemus sylvaticus and Clethrionomys glareolus in an agricultural system. Parasitol. Res. 83: 478-482.
Davami, M.H. et al. 1997. Cryptosporidium infection in major histocompatibility complex congeneic strains of mice: variation in susceptibility and the role of T-cell cytokine responses. Parasitol. Res. 83: 257-263.
Fayer, R. et al. 1991. Chronic cryptosporidiosis in a Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus). J. Zoo Wildlf. Med. 22: 228-232.
Izeki, M. 1986. Two species of Cryptosporidium naturally infecting house rats, Rattus norvegicus. Jpn. J. Parasitol. 35: 521-526.
Izeki, M. et al. 1989. Infectivity of Cryptosporidium muris (strain RN 66) in various laboratory animals. Parasitol. Res. 75: 218-222.
Lindsay, D.S. et al. 2000. Cryptosporidium andersoni n. sp. (Apicomplexa: Cryptosporidiidae) from cattle, Bos taurus. J. Euk. Microbiol. 47:91-95.
Matsui, T. et al. 1999. Infectivity to hosts of the endogenous stages of chicken and murine Cryptosporidium. J. Vet. Med. Sci. 61: 471-474.
McDonald, V. et al. 1994. Cryptosporidium muris in adult mice: adoptive transfer of immunity and protective roles of CD4 versus CD8 cells. Inf. Immun. 62: 2289-2294.
McDonald, V. et al. 1996. Immunity to Cryptosporidium muris infection in mice is expressed through gut CD4(+) intraepithelial lymphocytes. Inf. Immun. 64: 2556-2562.
Morgan, U.M. et al. 2000. Molecular and phylogenetic analysis of Cryptosporidium muris from various hosts. Parasitology 120: 457-464.
Moriya, K. 1989. Ultrastructural observations on oocysts, sporozoites and oocyst residuum of Cryptosporidium muris (strain RN 66). J. Osaka City Med. Center 38: 177-201.
Morgan, U.M. et al. 1995. Molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium isolates from humans and other animals using random amplified polymorphic DNA analysis. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 52: 559-564.
Ozkul, I.A. and Aydin, Y. 1994. Natural Cryptosporidium muris infection of the stomach in laboratory mice. Vet. Parasitol. 55: 129-132.
Pavlasek, I. and M. Lavicka. 1995. The first findings of natural Cryptosporidium infection of stomach in desert hamsters (Phodopus roborovskii Satunin, 1903). Vet. Med. Czech. 40: 261-263.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1991. Isolation and identification of Cryptosporidium from various animals in Korea. I. Prevalence of Cryptosporidium within various animals. Korean J. Parasitol. 29: 139-148.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1991. Isolation and identification of Cryptosporidium from various animals in Korea. II. Identification of Cryptosporidium muris from mice. Korean J. Parasitol. 29: 149-159.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1995. Oocyst production and immunogenicity of Cryptosporidium muris (strain MCR) in mice. Korean J. Parasitol. 33: 377-382.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1997. Effects of Cryptosporidium muris (strain MCR) infection on gastric mucosal mast cells in mice. Korean J. Parasitol. 35: 245-249.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1998. Infection kinetics and developmental biology of Cryptosporidium muris (strain MCR) in Korean native kids and Corriedale lambs. Korean J. Parasitol. 36: 171-181.
Rhee, J.K. et al. 1999. Age-dependent resistence to Cryptosporidium muris (strain MCR) infection in golden hamsters and mice. Korean J. Parasitol. 37: 33-37.
Sturdee, A.P. et al. 1999. Detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in wild mammals of mainland Britain. Vet. Parasitol. 80: 273-280.
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Yoshikawa, H. and Iseki, M. 1992. Freeze-fracture study of the stie of attachment of Cryptosporidium muris in gastric glands. J. Protozool. 39: 539-544.
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Baxby, D. et al. 1985. Shedding of oocysts by immunocompetent individuals with cryptosporidiosis. J. Hyg. Camb. 95: 703-709.
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Chacin-Bonilla, L. et al. 1993. Cryptosporidium infections in a suburban community in Maracaibo, Venezuela. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 49: 63-67.
Cruickshank, R. et al. 1988. Human cryptosporidiosis in North Queensland. Aust. NZ J. Med. 18: 582-586.
Esteban, J.-G. et al. 1998. High Cryptosporidium prevalences in healthy Aymara children from the northern Bolivian altiplano. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 58: 50-55.
Fang, G.D. et al. 1995. Etiology and epidemiology of persistent diarrhea in Northeastern Brazil: a hospital-based, prospective, case-control study. J. Ped. Gastroent. Nutr. 21: 137-144.
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Hamoudi, A.C. et al. 1988. Do regional variations in prevalence of cryptosporidiosis occur? The central Ohio experience. Am. J. Publ. Health 78: 273-275.
Harp, J.A. et al. 1996. Effect of pasteurization on infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in water and milk. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62: 2866-2868.
Jokipii, L. and Jokipii, A.M.M. 1986. Timing of symptoms and oocyst excretion in human cryptosporidiosis. New Eng. J. Med. 315: 1643-1647.
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Koch, K.L. et al. 1985. Cryptosporidiosis in hospital personnel. Evidence for person-to- person transmission. Ann. Int. Med. 102: 593-596.
Lengerich, E.J. et al. 1993. Increased exposure to cryptosporidia among dairy farmers in Wisconsin. J. Inf. Dis. 167: 1252-1255.
Levine, J.F. et al. 1988. Cryptosporidiosis in veterinary students. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 193: 1413-1414.
Marshall, A.R. et al. 1987. Cryptosporidiosis in patients at a large teaching hospital. J. Clin. Microbiol. 25: 172-173.
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Newman, R.D. et al. 1994. Household epidemiology of Cryptosporidium parvum infection in an urban community in northeast Brazil. Ann. Int. Med. 120: 500-505.
Oyofo, B.A. et al. 1997. Enteropathogens associated with diarrhea among military personnel during operation Bright Star 96, in Alexandria, Egypt. Military Med. 162: 396-400.
Pohjola, S. et al. 1986. Sporadic cryptosporidiosis in a rural population is asymptomatic and associated with contact to cattle. Acta Vet. Scand. 27: 1-12.
Ribeiro, C.D. and Palmer, S.R. 1986. Family outbreak of cryptosporidiosis. British Med. J. 292: 377.
Shahid, N.S. et al. 1987. Cryptosporidium as a pathogen for diarrhoea in Bangladesh. Trop. Geogr. Med. 39: 265-270.
Skeels, M.R. et al. 1986. Screening for coinfection with Cryptosporidium and Giardia in Oregon public health clinic patients. Am. J. Publ. Health 76: 270-273.
Skeels, M.R. et al. 1990. Cryptosporidium infection in Oregon Public Health Clinic patients 1985-1988: the value of statewide laboratory surveillance. Am. J. Publ. Health 80: 305-308.
Soave, R. and Ma, P. 1985. Cryptosporidiosis. Traveler's diarrhea in two families. Arch. Intern. Med. 145: 70-72.
Sorvillo, F.J. et al. 1992. Swimming-associated cryptosporidiosis. Am. J. Publ. Health 82: 742-744.
Stehr-Green, J.K. et al. 1987. Shedding of oocysts in immunocompetent individuals infected with Cryptosporidium. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 36: 338-342.
Sterling, C.R. et al. 1986. Cryptosporidium as a causative agent of traveler's diarrhea. J. Inf. Dis. 153: 380-381.
Ungar, B.L.P. et al. 1988. Seroepidemiology of Cryptosporidium infection in two Latin American populations. J. Inf. Dis. 157: 551-556.
Ungar, B.L.P. et al. 1989. Serologic evidence of Cryptosporidium infection in US volunteers before and during Peace Corps service in Africa. Arch. Intern. Med. 149: 894-897.
Weikel, C.S. et al. 1985. Cryptosporidiosis in Northeastern Brazil: association with sporadic diarrhea. J. Inf. Dis. 151: 963-965.
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Atwill, E.R. et al. 2000. Cross-sectional study of faecal shedding of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium parvum among livestock in the Sierra Nevada range. Equine Vet. J. 32: 247-252.
Beelitz, P. et al. 1996. Spectrum of species and incidence of endoparasites of foals and their mother mares from breeding farms with and without antihelminthic prophylaxis in upper Bavaria. Tierarztl. Prax. 24: 48-54.
Bjorneby, J.M. 1991. Persistent cryptosporidiosis in horses with severe combined immunodeficiency. Inf. Immun. 59: 3823-3826.
Browning, G.F. et al. 1991. The prevalence of enteric pathogens in diarrhoeic Thoroughbred foals in Britain and Ireland. Equine Vet. J. 23: 405-409.
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Chermette, R. et al. 1989. Survey on equine cryptosporidiosis in Normandy. In, Coccidia and Intestinal Coccidiomorphs. Proc. 5th Int. Coccidiosis Conf., Tours, France, 17-20 Oct., 1989. pp. 493-498.
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Gallimore, C.I. et al. 1995. Detection of a picobirnavirus associated with Cryptospordium positive stools from humans. Arch. Virol. 140: 1275-1278.
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Khramtsov et al. 1997. Virus-like, double-stranded RNAs in the parasitic protozoan Cryptosporidium parvum. Mol. Microbiol. 26: 289-300.
Khramtsov, N.V., P.A. Chung, C.C. Dykstra, J.K. Griffiths, U.N. Morgan, M.J. Arrowood, and S.J. Upton. 2000. Presence of dsRNAs in human and calf isolates of Cryptosporidium parvum. J. Parasitol. 86(2): 275-282.
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Kozwich, D. et al. 2000. Development of a novel, rapid integrated Cryptosporidium parvum detection assay. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 66: 2711-2717.
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(traditional staining methods excluded)
NOTE: Enteric coccidia have both internal and, sometimes, external antigens that interact non-specifically but strongly with mucins in feces. Thus, bovine serum albumin, Tween-20, non-fat dry milk, and other standard blocking agents are generally ineffective. For those individuals developing their own fecal ELISAs, the use of 25% rabbit or porcine serum in PBS is recommended as a blocking agent. There are also 2 articles that I recommend reading if you are a novice at the fecal ELISA:
Baunoch, D.A. et al. 1992. BioTechniques 12(3): 412-417. [This paper describes a method of stripping antibody from plates so that they can be reused 1-2 additional times. Be sure NOT to cut corners on recommended incubation times].
Ferguson, A. et al. 1995. Clin. Exp. Immunol. 99: 70-75. [This paper describes the failings/technical errors associated with the use of saline extracts of feces to measure gut humoral immunity].
Aarnaes, S. et al. 1994. Comparison of the ProSpec T and ColorVue enzyme-linked immunoassays for the detection of Cryptosporidium in stool specimens. Diagn. Microbiol. Inf. Dis. 19: 221-225.
Alles, A.J. et al. 1995. Prospective comparison of direct immunofluorescence and conventional staining methods for detection of Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. in human fecal specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33: 1632-1634.
Anusz, K.Z. et al. 1990. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in bovine feces by monoclonal antibody capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 28: 2770-2774.
Arrowood, M.J. and Sterling, C.R. 1989. Comparison of conventional staining methods and monoclonal antibody-based methods for Cryptosporidium oocyst detection. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27: 1490-1495.
Arya, S.C. 1995. Cryptosporidium antigen detection in human feces by reverse passive hemagglutination assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33(letter): 1684. (reply: Farrington et al., 1995, J. Clin. Microbiol. 33: 1684-1685).
Baron, E.J. et al. 1989. Comparison of three methods for detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in a low-prevalence population. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27: 223-224.
Benigna Balatbat, A. et al. 1996. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum DNA in human feces by nested PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 34: 1769-1772.
Campbell, A.T. et al. 1992. Viability of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts: correlation of in vitro excystation with inclusion or exclusion of fluorogenic vital dyes. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 58: 3488-3493.
Casemore, D.P. and Roberts, C. 1992. Guidelines for screening for Cryptosporidium in stools: report of a joint working group. J. Clin. Pathol. 46: 2-4.
Dagan, R. et al. 1995. Evaluation of an enyzme immunoassay for the detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in stool specimens from infants and young children in field studies. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 52: 134-138.
Entrala, E. et al. 1995. Influence of hydrogen peroxide on acid-fast staining of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Int. J. Parasitol. 25: 1473-1477.
Farrington, M. et al. 1994. Cryptosporidium antigen detection in human feces by reverse passive hemagglutination assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 32: 2755-2759.
Garcia, L.S. and R.Y Shimizu. 1997. Evaluation of nine immunoassay kits (enzyme immunoassay and direct fluorescence) for detection of Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum in human fecal specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 35: 1526-1529. [OK folks. As far as I'm concerned, Lynne is the definitive expert in these types of tests and this is the definitive paper ].
Garcia, L.S. et al. 1983. Techniques for the recovery and identification of Cryptosporidium oocysts from stool specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 18: 185-190.
Garcia, L.S. et al. 1987. Fluorescence detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in human fecal specimens by using monoclonal antibodies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 25: 119-121.
Garcia, L.S. et al. 1989. Incidence of Cryptosporidium in all patients submitting stool specimens for ova and parasite examination: monoclonal antibody IFA method. Diagn. Microbiol. Inf. Dis. 11: 25-27.
Garcia, L.S. et al. 1992. Evaluation of a new monoclonal antibody combination reagent for diret fluorescence detection of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in human fecal specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 30: 3255-3257.
Grigoriew, G.A. et al. 1994. Evaluation of the Merifluor immunofluorescent assay for the detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in sodium acetate formalin-fixed stools. Diagn. Microbiol. Inf. Dis. 19: 89-91.
Ignatius, R. et al. 1997. Efficacy of different methods for detection of low Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst numbers or antigen concentrations in stool specimens. Eur. J. Clin. Microbiol. Inf. Dis. 16: 732-736.
Kapel, N. et al. 1993. Determination of anti-Cryptosporidium coproantibodies by time- resolved immunofluorometric assay. Trans. R. Soc. Trop. Med. Hyg. 87: 330-332.
Kehl, K.S.C. et al. 1995. Comparison of four different methods for detection of Cryptosporidium species. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33: 416-418.
Leng, X. et al. 1996. Simplified method for recovery and PCR detection of Cryptosporidium DNA from bovine feces. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62: 643-647.
MacPherson, D.W. and R. McQueen. 1993. Cryptosporidiosis: multiattribute evaluation of six diagnostic methods. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31: 198-202.
McCluskey, B.J. et al. 1995. Patterns of Cryptosporidium oocyst shedding in calves and a comparison of two diagnostic methods. Vet. Parasitol. 60: 185-190.
Morgan, U.M. et al. 1998. Comparison of PCR and microscopy for detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in human fecal specimens: clinical trial. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36: 995-998.
Newman, R.D. et al. 1993. Evaluation of an antigen capture enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31: 2080-2084.
Parisi, M.T. and Tierno, P.M. 1995. Evaluation of new rapid commercial enzyme immunoassay for detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in untreated stool specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33: 1963-1965.
Pohjola, S. et al. 1986. Rapid immunoassay for detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts. Acta Vet. Scand. 27: 71-79.
Ratnam, S. et al. 1985. Occurrence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in fecal samples submitted for routine microbiological examination. J. Clin. Microbiol. 22: 402-404.
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Rosenblatt, J.E. and Sloan, L.M. 1993. Evaluation of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of Cryptosporidium spp. in stool specimens. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31: 1468-1471.
Rusnak, S. et al. 1989. Detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts in human fresh specimens by an indirect immunofluorescence assay with monoclonal antibodies. J. Clin. Microbiol. 27: 1135-1136.
Siddons, C.A. et al. 1992. Evaluation of an enzyme-immunoassay kit for detecting Cryptosporidium in feces and environmental samples. J. Clin. Pathol. 45: 479-482.
Soulen, M.C. et al. 1986. Cryptosporidiosis of the gastric antrum: detection using CT. Radiology 159: 705-706.
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Webster, K.A. et al. 1996. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in faeces: comparison of conventional coproscopical methods and the polymerase chain reaction. Vet. Parasitol. 61: 5-13.
Xiao, L. and Herd, R.P. 1993. Quantitation of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in fecal samples by direct immunofluorescence assay. J. Clin. Microbiol. 31: 2944-2946.
Zhu, G. et al. 1998. Direct isolation of DNA from patient stools for polymerase chain reaction detection of Cryptosporidium parvum. J. Inf. Dis. 177: 1443-1446.
Zimmerman, S.K. and Needham, C.A. 1995. Comparison of conventional stool concentration and preserved-smear methods with Merifluor Cryptosporidium/Giardia direct immunofluorescence assay and ProSpecT Giardia EZ microplate assay for detection of Giardia lamblia. J. Clin. Microbiol. 33: 1942-1943.
Anonymous. 1997. Outbreaks of Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection and cryptosporidiosis associated with drinking unpasteurized apple cider-Connecticut and New York, October 1996. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 277: 781-782 [reprinted from MMWR 1997; 47:5-8].
Casemore, D.P. 1990. Foodborne protozoal infection. Lancet 336: 1427-1432.
Friedman, D.E. et al. 1997. The potential for Cryptosporidium parvum oocyst survival in beverages associated with contaminated tap water. J. Food Safety 17: 125-132.
Harp, J.A. et al. 1996. Effect of pasteurization on infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in water and milk. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 62: 2866-2868.
Laberge, I. et al. 1996. Prevalence, detection and control of Cryptosporidium parvum in food. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 31: 1-26.
Laberge, I. et al. 1996. Detection of Cryptosporidium parvum in raw milk by PCR and oligonucleotide probe hybridization. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 62: 3259-3264.
Lake, R., and S. Hasell. 1996. Foodborne Cryptosporidium infection. Environ. Health, Dec. 39-40.
Millard, P.S. et al. 1994. An outbreak of cryptosporidiosis from fresh-pressed apple cider. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 272: 1592-1596.
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NOTE: Numerous uncontrolled clinical reports have been published describing the relative efficacy of various antimicrobials on Cryptosporidium. These can be a frustrating problem in antimicrobial research. A report erroneously suggesting a compound to have effiacy can lead to a considerable expendature of wasted time, effort, and resources by a researcher or pharmaceutical company. Even worse, a compound may be erroneously labeled as ineffective when, through a proper dose regime, might prove to be highly effective. I have omitted most (but not all) of these case reports as they can only be considered, at best, "anecdotal."
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Moore, R. et al. 1995. Temporal changes in permeability and structure of piglet ileum after site-specific infection by Cryptosporidium parvum. Gastroenterology 108: 1030-1039.
Morgan, U.M. et al. 1999. Molecular and biological characterization of Cryptosporidium in pigs. Aust. Vet. J. 77: 44-47.
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Tzipori, S. et al. 1982. Enterocolitis in pigs caused by Cryptosporidium sp. purified from calf feces. Vet. Parasitol. 11: 1121-1126.
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Vitovec, J. and Koudela, B. 1992. Pathogenesis of intestinal cryptosporidiosis in conventional and gnotobiotic piglets. Vet. Parasitol. 43: 25-36.
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Chalmers, R.M. et al. 1997. Cryptosporidium parvum in environmental samples in the Sligo area, Republic of Ireland: a preliminary report. Lett. Appl. Microbiol. 25: 380-384.
Fayer, R. et al. 1997. Potential role of the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica, in the epidemiology of Cryptosporidium parvum. Appl. Environment. Microbiol. 63: 2086-2088.
Fayer, R. et al. 2000. Rotifers ingest oocysts of Cryptosporidium parvum. J. Euk. Microbiol. 47: 161-163.
Graczyk, T.K. et al. 1996. Viability and infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts are retained upon intestinal passage through a refractory avian host. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 62: 3234-3237.
Graczyk, T.K. et al. 1997. Infectivity of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts is retained upon intestinal passage through a migratory water-fowl species (Canada goose, Branta canadenisis). Trop. Med. Int. Health 2: 341-347.
Graczyk, T.K. et al. 1997. In vitro interactions between hemocytes of the eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica Gmelin, 1791 and Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. J. Parasitol. 83: 949-952.
Graczyk, T.K. et al. 1997. In vitro interactions of asian freshwater clam (Corbicula fluminea) hemocytes and Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 63: 2910-2912.
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Graczyk, T.K. et al. 1998. Oocysts of Cryptosporidium from snakes are not infectious to ducklings but retain viability after intestinal passage through a refratory host. Vet. Parasitol. 77: 33-40.
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Graczyk, T.K. et al. 1999. Cryptosporidium oocysts in bent mussels (Ischadium recurvum) in the Chesapeake bay. Parasitol. Res. 85: 518-521.
Graczyk, T.K. et al. 1999. House flies (Musca domestica) as transport hosts of Cryptosporidium parvum. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 61: 500-504.
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Smith, H.V. et al. 1993. Occurrence of oocysts of Cryptosporidium sp. in Larus spp. gulls. Epidemiol. Inf. 110: 135-143.
Tamburrini, A. and E. Pozio. 1999. Long-term survival of Cryptosporidium oocysts in seawater and in experimentally infected mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis). Int. J. Parasitol. 29: 711-715.
Zerpa, R. and L. Huicho. 1994. Childhood cryptosporidial diarrhea associated with identification of Cryptosporidium sp. in the cockroach Periplaneta americana. Ped. Inf. Dis. J. 13: 546-548.
For more information concerning Cryptosporidium and cryptosporidiosis, contact:
Steve J. Upton,
PhD
Division of Biology, Ackert Hall
Kansas State University
Manhattan, KS 66506
Voice: (785) 532-6639
FAX (785) 532-6653
parasitology@ksu.edu
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